Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)

The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) is an international financial institution proposed by China. The purpose of the multilateral development bank is to provide finance to infrastructure projects in the Asia-Pacific region.

Founded: Oct 2014.

Members: 21 founding members.

The first news reports about the AIIB appeared in October 2013.The Chinese government has been frustrated with what it regards as the slow pace of reforms and governance, and wants greater input in global established institutions like the IMF, World Bank and Asian Development Bank which it claims are dominated by American, European and Japanese interests.

New Development Bank (BRICS Bank)

Based on: Fortaleza Declaration (2014)

Headquarters: Shanghai, first regional office in Johannesburg.

President: K. V. Kamath (Ex-Chairman: Infosys Ltd. and Ex-MD and CEO of ICICI Bank)

Organization: The Bank shall have a Board of Governors, a Board of Directors, a President and Vice-Presidents. The President of the Bank shall be elected from one of the founding members on a rotational basis, and there shall be at least one Vice President from each of the other founding members.

Functions:

1. to utilize resources at its disposal to support infrastructure and sustainable development projects,  public or private, in the BRICS and other emerging market economies and developing countries, through the provision of loans, guarantees, equity participation and other financial instruments;
2. to cooperate with international organizations, as well as national entities whether public or private, in particular with international financial institutions and national development banks;
3. to provide technical assistance for the preparation and implementation of infrastructure and sustainable development projects to be  supported by the Bank;
4. to support infrastructure and sustainable development projects involving more than one country;
5. to establish, or be entrusted with the administration, of Special Funds which are designed to serve its purpose.

Capital:

The New Development Bank shall have an initial subscribed capital of US$ 50 billion and an initial authorized capital of US$ 100 billion. The initial subscribed capital shall be equally distributed amongst the founding members. The voting power of each member shall equal its subscribed shares in the capital stock of the Bank. 

Literacy in India

Literacy in India is measured by responses recorded in the population enumeration data of the Census of India, conducted once in a decade. For this, any person above the age of 7 who can read and write with understanding in any language is considered literate.

Literacy reflects socio-economic and cultural setup of a nation. Literacy is not only necessary for eradication of poverty but also for mental isolation for free play of demographic processes.

When the British rule ended in India in the year 1947 the literacy rate was just 12%. Over the years, India has changed socially, economically, and globally. After the 2011 census, literacy rate India 2011 was found to be 74.04%. ( male 84% and female 65%)





Reason for Variation of Literacy Rate:
As per the census 2011 the literacy rate of Kerala is 94% and on the other hand literacy of Bihar is 61.8%. This huge difference among these two states is due to following socio-economic causes

1. Type of economy : differences in levels of industrial and agricultural states correlates to education. In non-agricultural economy literacy is a functional prerequisite.

2. Cost of education: cost effects as most poor people cannot afford education

3. Standard of living : there is a positive correlation between literacy level and standard of living

4. Political/ideological background : effects the psychology of the family to educate a person.

5. degree of urbanization: more urbanized states have a better level of literacy while rural have low.

7. availability of educational institutions: quality and better government institutions give better access to educating masses

8. public policies: government intervention is a major factor for providing education to masses

9. degree of development of transport and communication: isolated areas in a state which are provided better transport and communication in states have better access to educational institutions.

10. prejudices against the female mobility and education : societies and states which do not accord equal status to women suffer from low female literacy rates

11. religious background: role of religion is quite vital

12.medium of instruction : mother tongue as a medium of instruction helps better grasping

13. stage of technological advancement

14. general value system

The various disparities in literacy rates of the states can be removed by government intervention provided the states have the will and infrastructure to do so.

Universal Elementary Education (UEE):

The role of Universal Elementary Education (UEE) for strengthening the social fabric of democracy through provision of equal opportunities to all has been accepted since the inception of our Republic.With the formulation of NPE, India initiated a wide range of programmes for achieving the goal of UEE through several schematic and programme interventions.

The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) (operational since 2000-2001) is being implemented as India's main programme for universalising elementary education. Its overall goals include universal access and retention, bridging of gender and social category gaps in education and enhancement of learning levels of children. SSA provides for a variety of interventions, including inter alia, opening and construction of new schools, additional teachers, regular teacher in-service training, academic resource support to ensure free textbooks, uniforms and free support for improving learning outcomes.
The Right to Free & Compulsory Education Act 2009 provides a justiciable legal framework that entitles all children between the ages of 6-14 years free and compulsory admission,attendance and completion of elementary education.It provides for children's right to an education of equitable quality, based on principles of equity and non-discrimination.Most importantly,it provides for children's right to an education that is free from fear,stress and anxiety.

Secondary Education

The policy at present is to make secondary education of good quality available, accessible and affordable to all young persons in the age group of 14-18. At present, the following schemes targeted at secondary stage (i.e. class IX to XII) are being implemented in the form of Centrally Sponsored Schemes:
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
Model Schools Scheme
National Means-cum Merit Scholarship Scheme
National Incentive to Girls
Appointment of Language Teachers

In addition to the above the Central Sector schemes of Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS), Navodaya Vidyalaya Sangathan (NVS), Central Tibetan Schools Administration (CTSA), Indo-Mangolian Schools are being implemented.

Adult Education:

Adult Education aims at extending educational options to those adults, who have lost the opportunity and have crossed the age of formal education, but now feel a need for learning of any type, including literacy, basic education, skill development (Vocational Education) and equivalency. With the objective of promoting adult education, a series of programmes have been introduced since the First Five Year Plan, the most prominent being the National Literacy Mission (NLM), that was launched in 1988 to impart functional literacy to non-literates in the age group of 15-35 years in a time bound manner. By the end of the 10th Plan period, NLM had made 127.45 million persons literate.

To bolster Adult Education and Skill Development, Government of India introduced two schemes, namely Saakshar Bharat and Scheme for Support to Voluntary Agencies for Adult Education and Skill Development, during the 11th Plan. Saakshar Bharat, the new variant of earlier NLM, set following goals: to raise literacy rate to 80%, to reduce gender gap to 10% and minimize regional and social disparaties, with focus on Women, SCs, STs, Minorities, other disadvantaged groups. All those districts that had female literacy rate below 50% as per census 2001 including Left Wing Extremism affected districts irrespective of literacy level are being covered under the programme.

Black Carbon

Black Carbon or soot refers to the solid particle emitted during incomplete combustion of of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass. BC is the solid fraction of PM2.5 that strongly absorbs light and converts that energy to heat.
Emissions of BC comes from mobile sources especially diesel vehicles, biomass burning (including wildfires), residential heating and industry.

It has much shorter life span – a few hours to 20 years than CO2 (lifespan of more than 100 years) but plays a far greater role in global warming as it traps more heat. Because of its short lifetime in the atmosphere the effects of BC are most important regionally, especially in South and East Asia. Other hotspots occur in Mexico, Brazil, Peru, and parts of Africa.

IMPACT ON ECOSYSTEM:

1. Melting of snow and ice, by absorbing heat in the atmosphere and by reducing albedo(the Earth's ability to reflect sunlight, when deposited on snow and ice)
2. Interference with cloud formation and changes in precipitation patterns.
3. Reduced agricultural production in some parts of the world.
4. Soiling and damage of material
5. Global temperature change
6. Visibility impairment
7. Respiratory and cardiovascular diseases in human beings

Right now, no country is observing the Black Carbon emission as it is not included in Kyoto Protocol list and only emitters are India and China in vast amount. Mitigating BC by using clean fuels , making emissions standards for industries and clean and efficient household cooking solutions, especially in rural areas could prove effective in slowing down the planet’s warming.

Green Building

"A green building is one which uses less water, optimizes energy efficiency, conserves natural resources, generates less waste and provides healthier spaces for occupants, as compared to a conventional building."

Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) is the national rating system for green buildings in India and is the first indigenous attempt to address sustainability issues in the Indian construction sector.

Indira Paryavaran Bhavan, india’s first net zero energy building that has been constructed with adoption of solar passive design and energy-efficient building materials.

Green buildings are fast becoming a development imperative, as India is set to become the third largest construction market in the world by 2025.

Indian Green Building Council, formed by Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) in 2001, is continuously striving towards wider adoption of Eco-friendly and green building concepts in the Indian industry.

Environmental benefits

1. Enhance and protect biodiversity and ecosystems
2. Improve air and water quality
3. Reduce waste streams
4. Conserve and restore natural resources

Economic benefits

1. Reduce operating costs
2. Create, expand, and shape markets for green product and services
3. Improve occupant productivity
4. Optimize life-cycle economic performance

Social benefits

1. Enhance occupant comfort and health
2. Heighten aesthetic qualities
3. Minimize strain on local infrastructure
4. Improve overall quality of life

Boko Haram

Boko Haram at a glance:

• Founded in 2002
• Official Arabic name, Jama'atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati wal-Jihad, means "People Committed to the Propagation of the Prophet's Teachings and Jihad"
• Initially focused on opposing Western education
• Launched military operations in 2009 to create Islamic state
• Designated a terrorist group by US in 2013
• Declared a caliphate in areas it controls in 2014

Since the Sokoto caliphate, which ruled parts of what is now northern Nigeria, Niger and southern Cameroon, fell under British control in 1903, there has been resistance among some of the area's Muslims to Western education.

They still refuse to send their children to government-run "Western schools", a problem compounded by the ruling elite which does not see education as a priority. Against this background, the charismatic Muslim cleric, Mohammed Yusuf, formed Boko Haram in Maiduguri in 2002. He set up a religious complex, which included a mosque and an Islamic school. Many poor Muslim families from across Nigeria, as well as neighbouring countries, enrolled their children at the school. But Boko Haram was not only interested in education. Its political goal was to create an Islamic state, and the school became a recruiting ground for jihadis. In 2009, Boko Haram carried out a spate of attacks on police stations and other government buildings in Maiduguri. This led to shoot-outs on Maiduguri's streets. Hundreds of Boko Haram supporters were killed and thousands of residents fled the city. Nigeria's security forces eventually seized the group's headquarters, capturing its fighters and killing Mr Yusuf. His body was shown on state television and the security forces declared Boko Haram finished.

But its fighters regrouped under a new leader, Abubakar Shekau, and have stepped up their insurgency. In 2013, the US designated it a terrorist organisation, amid fears that it had developed links with other militant groups, such as al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, to wage a global jihad. Boko Haram's trademark was originally the use of gunmen on motorbikes, killing police, politicians and anyone who criticises it, including clerics from other Muslim traditions and Christian preachers.

The group has also staged more audacious attacks in northern and central Nigeria, including bombing churches, bus ranks, bars, military barracks and even the police and UN headquarters in the capital, Abuja. Amid growing concern about the escalating violence, President Goodluck Jonathan declared a state of emergency in May 2013 in the three northern states where Boko Haram is the strongest - Borno, Yobe and Adamawa.

Reason: 

Despite its vast resources, Nigeria ranks among the most unequal countries in the world, according to the UN. The poverty in the north is in stark contrast to the more developed southern states. While in the oil-rich south-east, the residents of Delta and Akwa Ibom complain that all the wealth they generate flows up the pipeline to Abuja and Lagos.

Southern residents tend to have better access to healthcare, as reflected by the greater uptake of vaccines for polio, tuberculosis, tetanus and diphtheria. Some northern groups have in the past boycotted immunisation programmes, saying they are a Western plot to make Muslim women infertile. This led to a recurrence of polio, but the vaccinations have now resumed.

Female literacy is seen as the key to raising living standards for the next generation. For example, a newborn child is far likelier to survive if its mother is well-educated. In Nigeria we see a stark contrast between the mainly Muslim north and the Christian and animist south. In some northern states less than 5% of women can read and write, whereas in some Igbo areas more than 90% are literate.

Nigeria is Africa's biggest oil producer and among the biggest in the world but most of its people subsist on less than $2 a day. The oil is produced in the south-east and some militant groups there want to keep a greater share of the wealth which comes from under their feet. Attacks by militants on oil installations led to a sharp fall in Nigeria's output during the last decade. But in 2010, a government amnesty led thousands of fighters to lay down their weapons.

Indian Philosophy

Introduction:

Indian Philosophy (or, in Sankrit, Darshanas), refers to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent, including Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, and Jain philosophy (see below for brief introductions to these schools). It is considered by Indian thinkers to be a practical discipline, and its goal should always be to improve human life.

Orthodox (Hindu) Schools: 
The main Hindu orthodox (astika) schools of Indian philosophy are those codified during the medieval period of Brahmanic-Sanskritic scholasticism, and they take the ancient Vedas (the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism) as their source and scriptural authority:

Samkhya:
Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems, and it postulates that everything in reality stems from purusha (self or soul or mind) and prakriti (matter, creative agency, energy). It is a dualist philosophy, although between the self and matter rather than between mind and body as in the Western dualist tradition, and liberation occurs with the realization that the soul and the dispositions of matter (steadiness, activity and dullness) are different.

Yoga:
The Yoga school, as expounded by Patanjali in his 2nd Century B.C. Yoga Sutras, accepts the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic, with the addition of a divine entity to Samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality. The relatively brief Yoga Sutras are divided into eight ashtanga (limbs), reminiscent of Buddhism's Noble Eightfold Path, the goal being to quiet one's mind and achieve kaivalya (solitariness or detachment).

Nyaya:
The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras, written by Aksapada Gautama in the 2nd Century B.C. Its methodology is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by the majority of the Indian schools, in much the same way as Aristotelian logic has influenced Western philosophy. Its followers believe that obtaining valid knowledge (the four sources of which are perception, inference, comparison and testimony) is the only way to gain release from suffering. Nyaya developed several criteria by which the knowledge thus obtained was to be considered valid or invalid (equivalent in some ways to Western analytic philosophy).

Vaisheshika:
The Vaisheshika school was founded by Kanada in the 6th Century B.C., and it is atomist and pluralist in nature. The basis of the school's philosophy is that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms, and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that causes consciousness in these atoms. The Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories (although Vaisheshika only accepted perception and inference as sources of valid knowledge).

Purva Mimamsa:by Rishi Jaimini
The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa school is to interpret and establish the authority of the Vedas. It requires unquestionable faith in the Vedas and the regular performance of the Vedic fire-sacrifices to sustain all the activity of the universe. Although in general the Mimamsa accept the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, they insist that salvation can only be attained by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas. The school later shifted its views and began to teach the doctrines of Brahman and freedom, allowing for the release or escape of the soul from its constraints through enlightened activity.

Vedanta:
The Vedanta, or Uttara Mimamsa, school concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads (mystic or spiritual contemplations within the Vedas), rather than the Brahmanas (instructions for ritual and sacrifice). The Vedanta focus on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity, more than traditional ritualism. Due to the rather cryptic and poetic nature of the Vedanta sutras, the school separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries: Advaita (the best-known, which holds that the soul and Brahman are one and the same), Visishtadvaita (which teaches that the Supreme Being has a definite form, name - Vishnu - and attributes), Dvaita (which espouses a belief in three separate realities: Vishnu, and eternal soul and matter), Dvaitadvaita (which holds that Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent), Shuddhadvaita (which believes that Krishna is the absolute form of Brahman) and Acintya Bheda Abheda (which combines monism and dualism by stating that the soul is both distinct and non-distinct from Krishna, or God).

Heterodox (Non-Hindu) Schools:

The main heterodox (nastika) schools, which do not accept the authority of the Vedas, include:

Carvaka:
Also known as Lokayata, Carvaka is a materialistic, sceptical and atheistic school of thought. Its founder was Carvaka, author of the Bṛhaspatya Sutras in the final centuries B.C., although the original texts have been lost and our understanding of them is based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools.

Buddhist philosophy:
Buddhism is a non-theistic system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. The question of God is largely irrelevant in Buddhism, and it is mainly founded on the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu philosophical concepts (althought it does share some philosophical views with Hinduism, such as belief in karma). Buddhism advocates a Noble Eightfold Path to end suffering, and its philosophical principles are known as the Four Noble Truths (the Nature of Suffering, the Origin of Suffering, the Cessation of Suffering, and the Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering). Buddhist philosophy deals extensively with problems in metaphysics, phenomenology, ethics and epistemology.

Jain philosophy:
The central tenets of Jain philosophy were established by Mahavira in the 6th Century B.C., although Jainism as a religion is much older. A basic principle is anekantavada, the idea that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true (similar to the Western philosophical doctrine of Subjectivism). According to Jainism, only Kevalis, those who have infinite knowledge, can know the true answer, and that all others would only know a part of the answer. It stresses spiritual independence and the equality of all life, with particular emphasis on non-violence, and posits self-control as vital for attaining the realization of the soul's true nature. Jain belief emphasize the immediate consequences of one's behaviour.

Indian Political Philosophy:
The Arthashastra, attributed to the Mauryan minister Chanakya in the 4th Century B.C., is one of the earliest Indian texts devoted to political philosophy, and it discusses ideas of statecraft and economic policy. During the Indian struggle for independence in the early 20th Century, Mahatma Gandhi popularized the philosophies of ahimsa (non-violence) and satyagraha (non-violent resistance), which were influenced by the teachings of the Hindu Bhagavad Gita, as well as Jesus, Tolstoy, Thoreau and Ruskin.

Beti Bachao Beti Padhao( BBBP)

• launched by the Prime Minister on January 22, 2015, at Panipat in Haryana. 
• It is a joint initiative of the Ministries of Women & Child Development, Health & Family Welfare and Human Resources Development
• twin objectives: to protect a girl child of her right to be born and her right to life, and to empower her with education and life skills.
• also launched the "Sukanya Samriddhi Account" for the benefit of the girl child for her education. The current year’s Budget proposal for 2015-16, gives it a tax break on its accrued annual interest of 9.1%.
• The scheme was initiated with an initial corpus of Rs 100 crore

Gender Inequality Index

The Gender Inequality Index (GII):

• an index for measurement of gender disparity
• introduced in the 2010 Human Development Report 20th anniversary edition by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 
• Dimensions:  reproductive health (MMR, Adolescent birth rate), empowerment (Share of seats in parliament, secondary education), and labor market participation.
• Value: 0~ non-existence of Inequality. 1~ Complete Inequality. 
• very High: High: Medium: Low
• 2014 Report: Top 3 ~ Norway, Australia, Switzerland 
• Bottom 3 ~ Niger, Congo, Central African Republic.
• India: 135. Medium.
• Pakistan: 146
• Bangladesh: 142
• Afghanistan: 169
• Maldives: 103
• Sri Lanka: 73
• China: 91
• SA: 118
• Brazil: 79
• Russia: 57

Puppetry in India

Multiple functions of Indian Puppetry:

Religious Source
Puppetry in India is deeply rooted in its religious ethos. Most traditional puppet-shows are embedded in its religious fairs and festivals, narrating stories of the gods and goddesses in order to seek their blessings.

Ritual Base
The Indian connection between rituals and puppets are endemic in almost all its states. All puppeteers perform several ritual ceremonies before a puppet-show begins.

Royal Patronage
As traditional puppeteers were mostly itinerant people, royal patronage counted a lot for their continued survival and sustenance, as they moved from place to place with their shows. The royalty, in turn, often intervened to use the performances for narrating stories of their own heroism as well as conveying royal edicts and instructions to the common man.

Nomadic Spread

The nomadic and gypsy groups in India boosted puppetry. While Maharashtra saw the migration of puppeteers from Gujarat, the grand master of shadow puppets from Maharashtra went to the south and spread the art in that region.

Mass communication

Medium of Learning

in vocation

in  Therapy and Rehabilitation

Puppery for Social Change

Puppets are principally of four forms: 
glove, rod, string and shadow. There are also a few composite forms.

Glove
Indian glove puppets are a simple form where the puppeteer puts on the puppet-like glove and manipulates the head of the puppet in his forefinger, controlling the arms with his thumb and middle finger. Puppeteers operate either from below or squatting on level ground, mostly hiding themselves from the audience. e.g. Pavakathakali from Kerala, Bener Putul from WB, Sakhi Natch from Odisha. 

Rod
An Indian rod puppet has a main rod to hold the puppet and two thin rods attached with two hands of the puppet for manipulation. The operation is from below. There are also three-dimensional moving figures that are manipulated with rods. Variations of rod puppet are as follows:
- Cylindrical Puppet (shaped cylindrically) - Using large heads capable of moving mouth and eyes, manipulated by one or two puppeteers;
- Stick Puppet - Using a simple stick to carry a light head and hanging hands, manipulated by children.
e.g. Putul Natch of WB, Kathi Kundhei from Odisha.

String
Indian string puppet (or marionette) is a figure with multiple joints and suspended by string from a control. In International terminology, it is used for a flexible puppet attached to a bar or hung by strings. String puppets operate from above. 
Variations of string puppets are as following: -
- Juggling Puppet - For marionette used in conjunction with juggler's falls;
- Multiple marionettes - Manipulating a few puppets attached shoulder-to- shoulder from a single control.
e.g. Gombeyatta from Karnataka, Bommalattam from TN.

Shadow

This Indian form uses not original puppets but their shadows - in black and white or in colour. The flat figures, usually made of leather, are lightly pressed on some translucent screen with a strong source of light behind. The screen thus forms the barrier between the audience and the puppet, creating the projection of image. The impact on the audience, surrounded by darkness all around, is quite dramatic. The screen in India is a simple sheet stretched on an adjustable frame.
e.g. Tholu Bommalata from A.P. Togalu Gombeatta from Karnataka. 

Some forms from the South:

Gombeyatta : A string puppet form of karnataka , designed like characters in yakshagana and puppets are highly stylized and have joints at the legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and knees which makes them to use in complicated movements.

Bommalattam : Poupular in tamil nadu and it is combination of both rod and string puppets. They are made of wood and the strings for manipulation are tied to an iron ring which the puppeteer wears like a crown on his head. Puppet may be as big as 4.5 feet in height weighing about ten kilograms which makes heaviest of all puppetry forms.

Tholu Bommalata : Shadow puppetry from andhra pradesh , unique feature of this form is they are coloured on both sides and it makes puppets throw coloured shadows on the screen.

Pavakathakali: A glove puppetry of kerala , came into existence due to influence of kathakali and the face of the puppets are decorated with paints, small and thin pieces of gilded tin, the feathers of the peacock makes unique to this form , themes are mostly based on ramayana or mahabharata.

Puppetry not only spotted in southern states but as connected to whole country which makes our culture more colourful in different forms with its unique blends.

Linking of Rivers

India has 18% of world population, and only 4% of water resources. The river is an integral part of human settlements, their lives, landscape, society, culture, history and religion. Draught, flood and shortage of drinking water etc. has led to the idea of inter-linking the rivers.

Merits of Linking:

1. Large water resources are unevenly distributed so waters can be managed.
2. Flood Control by creating dams, reservoirs, etc possible
3. Power generation is possible, by mini – hydro plants and solar plants floating of surface waters.
4. Employment generation, growth in Inland waterways.
5. It would create employment opportunities through fishing ground creation

Demerits:

1. By spending 50 % of GDP it can take 10 – 15 years in completion, so it will make water more costly.
2. Interlinking of rivers may give rise to interstate disputes and given the highly political nature of such disputes it seems very difficult
3. Loss of agricultural land
4. Deforestation
5. Submergence of habitable or reserved lands
6. Loss of biodiversity as the project passes through critical areas.
7. Thousands of acres land acquisition is practically impossible, it can create human re-settlement issues, and loss of cultural habitats.
8. Bangladesh is required to give its consent in order to make this feasible. Therefore all efforts needs to be taken to take Bangladesh into confidence for viability of this project.

So, though Supreme Court has ordered to inter-link rivers, and government is showing interest in it, I shall suggest to take enhanced water conversations measures instead of going forward with river – linking project.

China has successfully attempted to divert water from one river to another. China’s assistance can be sought for this project. A proper mechanism such as a task force led by PM and CMs of respective states can be devised to accommodate all views. Funds from Private sector can be garnered to meet the cost.

differences between Peninsular Rivers and the Himalayan Rivers of India

1. Source: Source of the perennial rivers lie in the plateau and lowlands, as they dependent on rainfall they are seasonal while Himalayan rivers receive water from rainfall as well as snowmelt from the glaciers.
2. Course and Basin: Peninsular Rivers have shorter and shallower courses and basin from their source to the mouth while Himalayan Rivers have long courses and basin joined by their many tributaries.
3. Carrying capacity: Peninsular Rivers have a lower carrying capacity as compared to the Himalayan Rivers which flow through high mountain regions performing intensive erosional activity in the upper course and carrying massive silt loads. While this causing massive flooding in the plains, the Deccan region is prone to droughts.
4. topographic Features: As peninsular rivers flow through metamorphic rocks, they have rigid courses and flow through wide and shallow valleys, forming waterfalls at some places, narrower flood plains and smaller deltas than the Himalayan rivers that cut through gorges forming V shaped valleys, rapids, ox bow lakes , well developed flood plains and deltas as they change course through the terrain.
5. Harnessing the rivers: There is more scope for irrigation, setting up hydel projects and dams etc.  in the Himalayan rivers because of the topography of the high regions as well as the perennial nature of the rivers while there is considerable reduction in the water supply of the peninsular rivers during the dry season.

Comparing the Indo-Islamic architecture temple architecture in India.

Commons to Indo -Islamic and Temple architecture:

1. Ornamental designs and their use in mosque as well as temple. 
2. Open courts were surrounded by colonnades (a row of stone columns with equal spaces between them, usually supporting a roof).
3. Both have the Architectural structure in front of which prayer are offered.
4. Mosques also had tank for ablutions (the act of washing yourself) and so do many temples.
5. Aesthetic (concerned with beauty and art) sense of values of both architecture

Contrast features:

1. Mosque light, open and spacious, temples were dark and closed. 
2. Construction with dome shaped, while temple wil have shikharas and Vimaanas depending on Nagara or Dravidian style of temples. Virupaksha and Pattadakal temple
3. In mosque prayer is pointing towards the Mihrab (Qibla). But in temples, prayers in front of deity, in Garbha griha.
4. Entrance to the temple sometimes bigger than the temple itself (Gopuram), mosques did not have giant gateways. 
5. Temples followed spanned corbels but mosques followed the principle of true arch. Arch were used but during Mauryan time, arch usage disappeared and after later part of 14th century remerged in southern India.
6. Even though lime was known, mud was widely used in temples and large stones were held together by iron clamps, Muslims made extensive use of Lime and mortar.
7. Ornamental features of Muslims were non-human figures, mainly floral decoration, symmetry, rhythmic pattern, Arabic writing while that of temples were Deities, human, animal forms etc.
8. Purdah hall system for females coming for prayer in mosques, but not in temples. 
9. Presence of tower/minaret to call prayer (azaan) in mosques, absent in temples. 
10. The Muslim style of construction was based trabeate. In the Hindu style of construction spaces were spanned corbels.
11. Script used in indo islamic architecture were arabic and in hindu temple there is very less use of Script and normally in sanskrit or prakrit.
12. Another unique feature of the indo Islamic architecture would be the Mughals introduction of gardens around tombs known as charbagh this was not seen in temple architecture.
13. The interior decoration in indo Islamic buildings was pietra dura style which included use of gems and ambient colours and in temples it was detailed carvings in stone and wood.
14. Burial Customs in Islam with Qbar inside Tomb e.g TAJMAHAL, no such concept in Hindu religion. 

Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas

Natural Gas

• Historically, India has relied on coal to power its electricity sector, liquid fuels as feed stock and oil for its transport sector. But for environmental reasons we need to focus on cleaner fuels.
• The development of Natural Gas industry in the country started in 1960s with discovery of gas fields in Assam and Gujarat. After discovery of South Basin fields by ONGC in 1970s, Natural Gas assumed importance. The Exploration activities in India were earlier carried out only by the National Oil Companies (ONGC & OIL) under nomination regime. Later private companies where allowed to enter into exploration through JV with NOCs under Pre-NELP regime (New Exploration and Licensing Plan, 1999). Subsequently, 100% foreign participation in exploration was allowed in the current NELP regime. Later discoveries were made in Gujarat, KG basin, Cauvery basin, Tripura, Assam etc. In 2004, liquefied Natural Gas was imported from Qatar and LNG terminal was set up at Dahej (Gujarat).
• Gas is one of the cleanest fuel with less carbon dioxide per joule delivered than either by coal or oil and far fewer pollutants than other hydrocarbon fuels.
• Use of Natural Gas: Fertilizers (35%) > Power (24%) > CNG & Domestic Use (13%) > Refineries > Petrochemicals > Steel.
• At present, the country has a gas pipeline network length of 14,987 Km spread over 15 States & UTs. Largest: Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur-GREP-Dahej-Vijaipur (4222 km)
• Few states like Gujarat, Maharashtra and UP together consume more that 65% of the available gas, while a large number of states have no access to gas. This regional imbalance is mainly on account of lack of pipeline infrastructure in many states like West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
• The share of offshore natural gas production in 2014-15 was about 74%. The remaining natural gas production including CBM was from 10 States viz., Assam (8.9%), Gujarat (4.6%), Tamil Nadu (3.6%), Rajasthan (3.4%), Tripura (3.3%), Andhra Pradesh (1.5%), West Bengal (0.6%), Arunachal Pradesh (0.1%), Jharkhand (0.01%) and Madhya Pradesh (0.01%).

Crude oil

• About 68.5% of crude oil is by ONGC and OIL from nomination regime and remaining 31.5% of crude oil production is by Private/JV companies from PSC regime.
• In 2014-15, the share of offshore crude oil production was about 50.2%. The remaining crude oil production was from 6 States viz., Andhra Pradesh (0.7%), Arunachal Pradesh (0.2%), Assam (12.1%), Gujarat (12.5%), Rajasthan (23.7%) and Tamil Nadu (0.6%).

CBM Resources

• The estimated Coal Bed Methane (CBM) resources spread over in 11 states in the country. JHARKHAND (28%) > RAJASTHAN> GUJARAT > ORISSA > CHATTISGARH> MADHYA PRADESH>WEST BENGAL > TAMILNADU > ANDHRA PRADESH > MAHARASHTRA > NORTH EAST.

Shale Gas / Oil Resource

• It is estimated that a number of sedimentary basins (Gangetic plain, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh & other coastal areas) in India, including the hydrocarbon bearing ones – Cambay, Assam-Arakan, & Damodar – have large shale deposits. Various agencies have estimated the shale gas/ oil resource potential in selected sedimentary basins / sub-basins in India. 

Gas Hydrate

• The presence of significant quantities of Gas Hydrate has been established in the KG, Mahanadi and Andaman basins.